Qualities Of A Good Writer Essay Example for Free

Qualities Of A Good Writer Essay Whilewriterscomefromallwalksoflife,theysharecertainqualitiesthathelp themproducesatisfyingwork. Ifyouhavesomeofthesecharacteristics,youcould tryacareerincreativewriting. Alternatively,youcouldlookforcreativewriters withthesequalitiestoassistwithyourorganizationspublications. Creativewriters mightpublishpoetry,shortstoriesandnovels,buttheyalsoworkformanykindsof clients to earn their living. Creativewriterscraftnewworlds,producingdescriptionsofplacesandpeoplethat sendreadersontripsintheirminds. Theydothiswithnothingbuttheirbrainsand someformofwritingimplementbeitanold-schoolnotebookoramoremodern laptop. Whilenotwowritersplytheircraftintheexactsameway,some characteristics are common for many who are successful. Efficiency Creativewritersrarelyworkinoffices. Theymostcommonlyworkalone,makingit easyforthemtoslipofftaskandwhileawayadaythatshouldbefilledwith writing. Forsuccess,creativewritersmustbeefficientandfocused,sayswriter, editorandghostwriterMichaelJ. Dowling. Theymustbeabletoforcethemselves todowork,despitethedistractionsthatmayfilltheirworkspaces,whichareoften at home. Those lacking this quality will likely find their writing dreams fruitless. Research Abilities Thoughcreativewritersincludefictitiousdetailsintheyarnstheyspin,theymust  stillengageinresearchtomaketheirpiecesbelievable. Ifwritinghistoricalfiction, for instance, writers must research the time periods in which they set their stories to accuratelyportrayallofthedetails. Similarly,writersmustresearchthephysical placesinwhichtheysettheirtales,acquiringtheknowledgenecessarytopaintan authentic picture of that place in readers’ minds. Imagination Todreamupthestoriesthatmakecompellingcreativefiction,creativewritersmust havehighlydevelopedimaginations,accordingtoHelenaBlakemore,professorat theUniversityofEastLondon. Writerscanengageinexercisestobolstertheir imaginativeskills,butpossessingapre-existingabilitytoimagineandinventisa benefit to those beginning in this field. Confidence Producingacreativeproductisscary. AsJoeDunthorne,authorofâ€Å"Submarine,† statedinanarticlefortheBritishnewspapertheGuardian,nosafepathexistsfor writing. Tobesuccessful,writersmustbebraveandwillingtotakerisks. Ifthey lackthewillingnesstoputasidetheirworriesandforgeahead,theirwritingwill likely not be distinctive enough to be noteworthy. Ability to Focus Goodwritersunderstandtheparticularrequirementsofawritingproject. Itdoesnt matterwhethertheyreusingacreativeapproachforamarketingpublicationor  draftinganewchapterforanovel. Theyhaveanabilitytofocusonthewritingtask andcreateanoutlineordirectionforwhattheyllwrite. Focusedwritingiseasier forthereadertofollow. Unfocusedwritingfrustratesreadersandmayturnthemoff completely so they wont continue reading. Different Approaches Towritecreativeworks,writersneedareliableapproach. Somewritersbeginwith undisciplinedwritinganduseself-editingtotightentheirwritinginthenextstage. Otherwriterswillconsidermanydraftsofaparagraphintheirheadormakenotes onscrappaperandthenwritedownahighlyfocusedparagraph,whichusually requireslesseditingdowntheline. Somewritersareversatile,usingdifferent  approachestogettingideasonpaperbasedontheirmoodorthekindofwriting project theyre doing. Discipline Self-disciplineisessentialtowriterswhowanttosupportthemselvesthrough creativewriting. Withoutit,youllfinditdifficulttomaximizetheuseofyour writingtime. Ifyouhaveregularclientsoradeadlinetosubmitamanuscriptto youreditor,youmustdevoteadequatetimetowritingeachdayorweektoreach yourgoal. Disciplinemeansthatyoublockouttimeforwritingandproducea specificquantityoftextinthattimeblock. Ifyoudontachievethegoalfora writing session, you block another session in which to hit the mark. Because writing  deadlinesaretimedandspecific,youcantaffordtowastetimeinthecreative writing mode. Voice and Authenticity Allkindsofcreativewritingbecomemoreeffectivewhenreaderscanhearthe presenceoftheauthorsvoice. Insometypesofliterature,charactersalsohave differentvoicesthatcompeteforthereadersattention. Goodwritersfindtheir voice for a particular work or character and use it consistently for the entertainment ofthereader. Ifyouhaventfoundyourwritersvoice,usefeedbackfromreadersto guideyou. Ifyouwriteauthentically,yourvoicereachesthereader. Bycopying anotherauthorsvoice,yourvoiceisboundtofalter;itwontcomeacross consistently or genuinely to the reader.

Current Definition Of Recklessness Within Criminal Law Law Essay

Current Definition Of Recklessness Within Criminal Law Law Essay Recklessness is a problematic area of the criminal law, since there is no strict definition of what constitutes it. Statutes make provision for the presence of recklessness, but have yet to define it strictly, thus it falls on the hands of the judges to interpret what is meant by recklessness. It is therefore most easily delineated via case law. Judges have had to rely on explanations in important case reports in order to decide what amounts to recklessness. This has meant delving through colossal number recklessness cases in order to find out whether the case in question falls within the confines set out there. Realising this is challenging, the Law Commission have sought to remedy the situation, by releasing several working papers on the issue. One of them gives the following explanation: a person acts recklessly [if] he is aware of a risk thatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦exists or will exist [or] à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦when he is aware of risk thatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦will occur and it is, in the circumstances known to him, unreasonable to take the risk.  [1]   This assignment will start by putting forward a concise history of intent in recklessness. The development of the law in this area will be looked out with the aid of case law such as Cunningham [1957] Caldwell [1982] and RvG [2003]. This paper will provide an evaluation of the current definition of recklessness within criminal law. In order to identify and understand the concept of recklessness, intention needs to be discussed. The 19th century criminal legislation required that defendants had to have acted `maliciously and `unlawfully when committing an offence. The accused will act unlawfully if he fails to present a lawful reason for his act, he would be considered acting maliciously once he satisfies the level of Mens Rea required for the Actus Reus. The word `malicious introduces the requirement of Mens Rea. The statutory definition of `malice is, requiring an actual intention to do a particular kind of harm that in fact was done, or reckless as to whether such harm should occur or not. The accused has foreseen that particular harm might be done, and has gone on to take the risk. The word `maliciously means in relation to the law of England and Wales `an intent or recklessness  [2]  . Intention is the highest level of Mens Rea. Mens Rea means `guilty mind in Latin. Intention differs from recklessness; intention commands a severe penalty within the criminal justice system, morally intent is considered objectionable, adjacent to recklessness. Recklessness was first used within criminal statute with conjunction to the Motorcar Act 1903. Professor C S Kennys opinion of recklessness required actual awareness by the defendant of the likelihood of the particular harm. Kenny considered it an element additional to awareness of risk, indifference whether the foreseen harm occurred or not. Another view is that an individual is reckless if he takes a known risk, even if he ardently trusts the foreseen harm, will not occur  [3]  . In 1957 the case of Cunningham transformed the interpretation of Recklessness. In R v Cunningham D broke a gas meter to steal the money contained within the meter. Gas seeped from the broken pipe and into the house next door, where Ds mother-in- law was sleeping. The mother-in-law became so ill, that her life was endangered. D was convicted of unlawfully and maliciously administering a noxious thing as to endanger life or inflict grievous bodily harm under S.23 of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861. Cunninghams conviction was quashed because of misdirection of the trial judge as to the meaning of maliciously.   The Court of Appeal held that malice must not be taken as to mean wickedness, but as requiring either (1) an intention to do the particular harm that was done, or (2) reckless as to whether such harm should occur or not  [4]  . Recklessness in this sense means foreseeing that harm might occur, and going ahead with the act anyway. This is called a subjective test, i.e. the accused is reckless if he realised there was a risk of gas escaping and endangering someone, and went ahead with his action anyway. Prof. Kenny wrote in his first edition of `outlines criminal law that, intent or recklessness had to be proved, as mentioned previously, he also stated that ` it neither limited to, nor does it indeed require any ill-will towards the person injured  [5]  . For a defendant to be guilty under Cunningham recklessness he must have consciously undertaken an unjust risk, he must realise that there is a risk involved. However, if he continues to carry on with his conduct, he is then reckless. The case defined a type of recklessness that the knowledge of appreciation of the risk of some danger must have entered the defendants mind even, though he may have suppressed or driven it out  [6]  . Cunningham is considered the first limb of recklessness the second limb arises from the case of MPC v Caldwell (1982). The second test of Recklessness, Caldwell created a new and wider test. D was an ex-employee of a hotel and held a grudge against its owner. He started a fire at the hotel, which caused some damage D was charged with arson. The old Cunningham test of recognising theres a risk and going ahead anyway, was extended to include a second limb; namely that the D does an act which creates an obvious risk and, has not given any thought as to the possibility of there being such a risk  [7]  . The Caldwell test for recklessness is objective, i.e. the risk must be obvious to the reasonable man, in that any reasonable man would have realised it if he had thought about it. Although, it need not be obvious to the defendant: Elliott v C [1983] and R v Coles [1994]. Lord Diplock stated that the definition of recklessness in Cunningham was too narrow for the Criminal Damage Act 1971, recklessness, should not only include the Cunningham meaning. Lord Diplock stated that a person is reckless as to whether any property would be destroyed or damaged if; he does an act, which in fact creates an obvious risk that property would be destroyed, or damaged. Additionally when the act is committed he has not given any thought to the possibility of there being any such risk, alternatively, he has recognised that there was some risk involved and has nonetheless gone on to do it  [8]  . Hence, for Caldwell recklessness to be satisfied, D does not have to foresee a risk, nevertheless takes a risk that would have been obvious to a reasonable prudent man. The It was deemed that after Caldwell whenever the term reckless was involved, an objective approach would be applied to the case. However this changed with the decision in RvG, as a subjective test was applied, instead of an objective test. It was deemed that a subjective test would be applied because the Caldwell test was seen to be a model direction which contained inconsistencies and lacked precision  [9]  . The RvG case reinstated the subjective test from R v Cunningham  [10]  (Cunningham) and clarified the law on recklessness by overruling the objective test in Caldwell. Additionally one can note that from RvG, this subjective definition of recklessness would be applicable in all statutory offences of recklessness and not the definition which was illustrated in the Cunningham case. The House of Lords decision in RvG enforcing this definition of reckless, illustrated a significant impact by eradicating the definition of recklessness in Cunningham. One can note that this impact of the decision conveyed the problems with the definition of recklessness under Cunningham. For example, within the Cunningham definition, the test only refers to taking risks as a result and makes no mention of taking risks as to a circumstance. However the law commission draft criminal code adds an additional restriction on finding the term reckless. Additionally, under the draft criminal code there is the additional requirement of the awareness of the risk and that the actual damage caused might occur. Thus the reformed definition of subjective recklessness conveys a more acc urate and broad scope of the meaning of recklessness, compared to the Cunningham definition of subjective recklessness. As a result of this reform, a subjective approach will be incorporated when assessing the term recklessness. Consequently it can be seen that the House of Lords in G and another did in fact adopt the better test in terms of policy and principle. Also English law has progressed to the point where there is, almost certainly, now only one test of recklessness  [11]  which is of a subjective nature. Additionally from the Cunningham case, the expression Maliciously was replaced with the expression reckless in RvG by Lord Bingham in the House of Lords. Maliciously was an expression which was formerly recognisable within the House of Lords. This proposal was changed because the term maliciously was seen to be too narrow and with limited scope. However, the expression reckless is considered to have a wider capacity for interpretation. Therefore this modification of expressions portrays a positive impact of the decision of the House of Lords in RvG. The reasonable adult was an issue raised in RvG from the objective approach in the Caldwell test. The issue of a reasonable adult was challenged in a previous case known as Elliott v C  [12]  . This case highlighted the negative aspects of objective recklessness as the person in question was fourteen years of age with learning difficulties. Evidently the risk must be obvious to the reasonably prudent person, and not necessarily obvious to the defendant. Therefore this conveys the problems within the Caldwell test as it does not cover everything, including individual characteristics. In this case the fourteen year old girl was guilty of criminal damage as she failed to consider the risk which would have been obvious to a reasonable person. In Hardie,  [13]  which came after Elliott v C, contradicted the judgement of the latter. Hardie became intoxicated after taking valium, believing them not to be dangerous. While under this influence, he set fire to his ex-girlfriends house, with her in it. Originally convicted, Hardie appealed and his conviction was quashed on the grounds that in itself, the taking of valium was not reckless. This is contradictory because his actual mental state was considered, which was not the case in Elliott v C. Subsequently this issue was raised in RvG, where within the trial, Lord Diplocks direction in Caldwell was used and disagreement occurred as the issue of the reasonable adult was accepted in being aimed at the children of ages eleven and twelve. From this trial, the case went onto the House of Lords, which unanimously answered the conflict of this question. The impact of the House of Lords decision in RvG illustrated great criticisms on the Caldwell test, in where it was noted that the Caldwell case was based on fragile foundations because the law commission report was not referred to  [14]  and subsequently was referred to in RvG. Additionally this impact of criticism upon Caldwell was heavily enforced by other law lords, for instance, Lord Hutton illustrated his criticism nature by expressing Experience suggest that in Caldwell in law took a wrong turn  [15]  and agreeing with Lord Bingham. Therefore conveying Lord Diplocks decision in the Caldwell case was incorrect. Furthermore Lord Diplocks decision in the Caldwell case has been criticised by many academics who have described the decision to be Pathetically inadequate, slap happy and profoundly regrettable  [16]  . Therefore the decision in the House of Lords in RvG illustrated these criticisms by rejecting the Caldwell recklessness approach. On the other hand, one can note that the decision in RvG in the House of Lords has had significant criticism on the basis of the outcome of the case. Academics have criticised RvG that the decision of the case should have been different. For example, Professor Keating criticised the decision of RvG by where in his investigation, he revealed 69% of members of the public do regard behaviour such as that of the boys as criminally blameworthy  [17]   thus illustrating that the boys between ages eleven and twelve in RvG were old enough to appreciate the risks involved. Additionally, the House of Lords decision in RvG has conveyed an impact of a criticising nature. It can be seen that as a result of RvG, there are critics that illustrate that it will be too easy for a defendant to state that they have not considered a risk to others and therefore may by acquitted at their case. On the contrary, the House of Lords have reasserted the subjective test instead of the objective test seen in Caldwell and have also established that if the defendant is voluntary intoxicated, they can be convicted without the awareness of the risk present. In the RvG case, the House of Lords conveyed this to be seen as a special exception in accordance with crimes concerning intoxicated individuals. Evidently this conveys how the House of Lords in RvG took into account of refining the Caldwell test due it being unfair, and achieving justice by taking into consideration, individual characteristics which werent present before in the Caldwell test. As mentioned above, one can note that the House of Lords decision in RvG illustrated criticism thus conveying a negative impact of the case. This can be seen as the RvG case only overrules the objective test in criminal damage, therefore the Caldwell test still applies today in certain cases after RvG, this can be seen in R v Castle (Mark Anthony)  [18]  , in where both the RvG and Caldwell tests were applied. Additionally Simester and Sullivan, both academics argue that Caldwell reckless could still be applied in some offences  [19]  , an example in where Caldwell has been applied can be seen by the Data Protection Act 1998  [20]  . Alternatively, one can suggest that there has been a positive impact of the House of Lords decision in RvG. This can be conveyed by where the courts no longer have to distinguish what type of recklessness has to be applied and the House of Lords in RvG has illustrated that the subjective one will be upheld in future cases concerning recklessness. Therefore this has allowed the courts to scrutinize the expression reckless more easily than seen in cases before RvG. An illustration of this can be seen in Eliot v C as noted above. In addition one can note that RvG case has ruled out a clear distinction between negligence and recklessness. It can be illustrated by previous cases that before the decision in RvG, there was not a clear distinction between both concepts. An example of a case is Chief Constable of Avon v Shimmen  [21]  . Within this case, it was deemed that a person who stops to think will still be liable if he realised there was some risk. Therefore this case illustrates that the Caldwell test made individuals guilty who previously were not guilty due to them being careless, but now after RvG are reckless. Overall, one must appreciate the House of Lords decision in RvG, which has allowed a subjective test to be reasserted when referring to recklessness and introduced a reformed definition of subjective recklessness. Additionally the decision has allowed a clear distinction to be applied when assessing negligence and recklessness cases. Moreover, the Caldwell test has been overruled in relation to criminal damage. Furthermore it can be identified above that there are both positive and negative impacts which have departed from the RvG decision in the House of Lords. Having analysed all of the above facts and cases, it is clear that the law on recklessness has been problematic, and often contradictory in the past. However the case of RvG has gone somewhat to remedy this issue and can be said to have succeeded in many respects. But there is still room for a statutory reform even though it may be vastly difficult to make statutory provision for all potential problems within recklessness. However, in the long run, statutory definitions of all that constitutes recklessness, and explanations of issues surrounding the topic, would be most useful, and save the judiciary time and money. Booth v Crown Prosecution Service (2006)

The elementary forms of religious life

The elementary forms of religious life The elementary forms of religious life Introduction: Through his critical look at the most primitive religion, his epistemological inquiries into the genesis of thought, and his attempt to theoretically account for the functional and universal nature of all religions, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life has proven to be a seminal work both in the academic study of religion, sociology and social theory. Arguing ultimately that religion is the symbolic expression of society and social experience, Durkheim revolutionized the academic study of religion with his original and insightful approach.[1] I will begin with a brief recap of the argument laid out in The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, which will be followed by a discussion of the implications it has on the study of religion. Finally, I will discuss some of the major critiques of his theoretical approach and argument. Argument: Durkheim believes that in order to explain religion, we must identify its most primitive form (3). The fundamental elements which are found in primitive religion are closer and more related to the initial motives that caused religious actions (9). These elements provide the objective content through which we can understand all religions (7). Religion is defined as a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart by prohibitions-beliefs and practices that unite adherents to a single moral community called a church (46). The most elementary form must satisfy this definition. For Durkheim, the two leading conceptions of the most elementary form of religion were animism and naturism. They attempt to explain what causes man to experience the sacred. Animism claims man experiences the sacred because of the misinterpretation of his dreams. This misinterpretation generates the notion of souls that are part of a separate reality (61). Naturism claims man feels a sacred reality because of the extraordinariness of natural phenomena (68). These theories suggest that mans idea of the sacred is a delirious interpretation because there is nothing inherently sacred about man or nature (76). However, it is a basic postulate of sociology that a human institution cannot rest on error or falsehood or it could not endure (4). This means that any conception of an elementary religion must account for the sacred as a real force. Durkheim goes on to assert that there must be a religion even more primitive then animism and naturism which is able to explain where the force of th e sacred actually comes from. This religion is totemism (77). Totemism is most evidently found in primitive Australian tribes. The most important feature of these tribes is their division into clans (88). Each clan has a totem, which is its distinguishing feature. The totem is represented in the form of a plant or animal to which the clan has a special relationship. This totem, which is the identity of the clan, also has a religious character because of its prominent use in religious ceremonies (96). This totem is central to the clan because things are classified as sacred and profane in relation to the totems religious character (96). The negative cult of totemism uses prohibitions and taboos regarding the totem to keep the sacred and profane separate (221). For instance, there are prohibitions on eating the totemic animal except during religious rituals. Also, women and uninitiated are prevented from coming into contact with sacred objects. These prohibitions are necessary because of the contagiousness of the sacred (237). Sacred objects are contagious because they confer sacrality to the things they touch. This suggests that some type of force resides in sacred objects. This force, or mana, was the object of the clans worship, not the animal or plant of the clan (147). The positive cult of totemism uses ritual to put man in organized contact with this sacred force (221). In these rituals clan members gather together in large numbers. This is in contrast to the ordinary and monotonous experience the clan member has in which he exists more or less independently from others. When all the clan members come together their proximity generates a kind of electricity that quickly transports them to an extraordinary degree of exaltation (162). This collective effervescence takes man outside himself to the point that he feels he has been transported into a special world entirely different from the ordinary (164). When he calms down from this excitement he is left to believe that he exists in two completely separate realities: his daily life and his religious life (164). These two realities are essentially the profane and the sacred respectively. To understand how this collective effervescence gets its power we must understand the way in which the categories o f knowledge are constructed by society. For Durkheim, one leading theory of knowledge was empiricism which claims man constructs the categories of knowledge of time, space, genus, cause, number (etc.) exclusively from his individual experience (15). This is not valid because it does not explain how people from the same culture have identical notions of time and space, etc. The second leading theory, apriorism, solves this problem by claiming man inherits the categories of knowledge from a divine reason existing prior to his experience (16). There is no proof this divine reason exists. Moreover, it does not explain why the categories of thought vary within cultures. This implies, for Durkheim, that man gets his categories from society (13). Further evidence suggests this is the basic category of knowledge. Genus, the notion that similar objects belong to the same group, can be modeled from mans experience of his relationship to society. After all, a genus is indeed an ideal yet clearly defined grouping of things with intern al bonds analogous to the bonds of kinship (114). There were as many divisions of space as there were divisions of clans within the tribe (13). In addition, man had a sense the clans were all interdependent and formed a unified whole the tribe. It is this reason why mans classifications represented a complete set of categories through which everything could be accounted. The categories of knowledge are the most basic types of collective representations and are informed by the collection of individual representations. However, when these individual representations are translated into collective representations they take on a new character: going from personal to impersonal. These collective representations outlive the individuals which contributed to them and gain a high degree of depth and complexity. They form a framework for reason that is infinitely richer and more complex then that of the individual and goes beyond the range of empirical knowledge (18). These categories establish the reality of society that is sui generis, or completely unique. Man is unable to think without using the concepts he inherits from his society. This means man naturally transcends himself when he thinks and when he acts. He elevates himself beyond his individual experience and into the collective reality of society. When man feels the sacred from the collective effervescence it is this social reality he experiences. It is his feeling of being part of something greater than himself. When man feels this force he is unable to attribute a concrete cause, so he represents it externally through objects which he considers sacred. These sacred objects are at the heart of religion and ultimately express society. Implications and Critique: Essential to Durkheims theory is the dichotomy between the sacred and profane and how the practices relating to his religious categories effect the social world. Of further importance is his argument that (contrary to other theories of religion that argue it being centered around magic, superstition or a philosophical error) religion is a real social fact. As such, he argues: Our entire study rests upon the postulate: that this unanimous feeling of believers across time cannot be purely illusory we admit that these religious beliefs rest upon a specific experience whose demonstrative value is, in one sense, not one bit inferior to that of scientific experiments, though different from them (312). In regards to the elementary religion Durkheim studies, he concludes that it is the religious activity that allows individuals within the tribe to understand themselves as collective. Further, it is the religious activity that serves to symbolize the social order with the totemic figure as an objective representation of their own society. Through the conscious repetition of various myths and rituals, a real sense of social unity and collective sentiments for tribal members was fostered (through the collective effervescence). This, in turn, works to strengthen and continually reestablish the social connections within the group. As an institution, understanding religion as having the authority to both command and garner compliance and awe is a unique concept in and of itself. Understanding religion as the symbolic expression of society is an original and path-breaking idea that has deeply influenced several academic fields and the direction of scholarly thought. As religion is a social fact, the objective entity behind religious symbolism and ritual can thus be understood as society (and not God). While I will return to this point, one must note that this idea would be intensely controversial for the religionist, as it implies that the individual participating in rituals is (at the very root) mistaken with regards to the objective phenomenon he is worshiping. When considering what Durkheim has done for the theoretical approach to defining and explaining religion, we can see his original approach to the social nature of religion as most telling. Before Durkheim, theoretical approaches to religion mainly focused on the individual and his understanding and philosophy of life or the interpretation of his reality (such as that of Otto, James or other phenomenologists). Durkheims work further shed light on the social role religion plays in organizing societies. By claiming that religions (a)ll are true in their own fashion and all answer though in different ways to the given condition of human existence Durkheim steered clear of questions of absolute truth (and theistic definition) which is ultimately beneficial for those interested in the comparative study of religion. While Durkheims theory has been one of the most influential in the study of religion, it has been susceptible to various criticisms. For instance, while he worked to counteract previous theories and positivistic approaches to religion, one can see such elements in his own definition. If Durkheim is indeed right, then the individual participants in rituals and religious ceremonies are mistaken, since the actual object of worship is something other than they are aware of. If we listen to Durkheim, we must believe that his scientific methods (and his particular methodology/theoretical approach) is on a higher plan with regards to accuracy, as it his methods which clarify the actual object of worship for the believer. Thus, the main theory of Durkheim has been attacked by those who believe he is reducing religion to something other than it is by claiming that it is the symbolic expression of society. This criticism inevitably leads to ones that are aimed at attacking Durkheims neglect for the subjective value of religious experience. In Durkheims theoretical view, the individual subjective experiences with sacred reality is only important with regards to its social utility (with respect to the feelings the collective effervescence engenders). This type of approach is in direct opposition to a theorist like Otto or James. With regards to his evidence for the most primitive form of religion (and his general belief that one could understand a complex phenomenon by finding and examining the phenomenon in its simplest form) is also quite questionable. As illustrated by the analyses of Clifford Geertz, one must note that it is difficult enough to interpret ethnographic findings when one is deeply immersed in the society. Since Durkheim himself did not participate in the ethnographic study (and never actually witnessed the culture), suspicious immediately rises (particularly as his argument hinges on the material). In The Interpretation of Cultures, Geertz states: The notion that one can find the essence of national societies, civilizations, great religions, or whatever summed up and simplified in so-called typical small towns and villages is palpable nonsense. What one finds in small towns and villages is (alas) small-town or village life. If localized, microscopic studies were really dependent for their greater relevance upon such a premise -that they captured the great world in the little- they wouldnt have any relevance (Geertz, 1973). The representations of religion can be seen as collective representations expressing a collective reality. Durkheimian thought points to the social nature of religion. While there are some criticisms, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life has proven to be immensely influential, both with regards to the theory of religion as well as a variety of other fields. In Geertzian terminology, then, one can see that Durkheim may be imposing his own contextual period (culture, history, scientific method) wrongly. How is Durkheim interpreting this evidence and is he correcting them with regards to his more advanced worldview? Conclusion: [1] If religion generated everything that is essential in society, this is because the idea of society is the soul of religion.

Physician- Assisted Suicide Essay -- Essays Papers

Physician- Assisted Suicide What can be more personal than the decision to end one's life in its final, painful days? Physician-assisted suicide is a justifiable suicide; â€Å"self-deliverance† and a person's liberty should not be taken away. On September 15, 2001 my negative attitude toward physician-assisted suicide changed drastically. My mother's parents are deeply in love and unfortunately have become very sick. My grandma was just diagnosed with Lou Gherig's disease one year before her death. My grandpa was always depressed because my grandma was in so much pain and was miserable. She was such a loving person and my mom was upset. When my grandma researched her illness, Lou Gherig's disease she realized that she would eventually be like a vegetable. Crying softly she looked up at our whole family and said, "Please I want to have PAS as soon as I get to "that" point in my illness. I love you all so much and don't want you to watch me die like that or spend a lot of money for som ething that cannot be helped." My grandpa loved her more than anyone can love a person and visited her in the hospital everyday. She was to "that" point in her life now and he was scared. Physician-assisted suicide is a justifiable self-deliverance because it helps those in pain avoid dying miserably. No person wants to live in pain or die in pain and PAS gives patients the mercy of dying painlessly. According to Kim, PAS allows patients a speedy death in peace and dignity (170). The author asserts that for many patients the pain they endure is too much to bear. Forcing people to suffer is immoral (Kim 171). No person that is terminally ill should want to suffer or allow their family members to watch them suffer. ... ...ainlessly than suffer. Physician-assisted suicide is a justifiable "self deliverance" because it helps those in pain avoid dying miserably. Works Cited Hawkins, Gail N., ed. Physician- Assisted Suicide. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2002. 11-35. Kim, Clara S. Pros and Cons: Social Policy Debates of Our Time. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2001. 165- 182. Manning, Michael. Euthanasia and Physician- Assisted Suicide: Killing or Caring? New York: Paulist Press, 1998. 26-44. Sommerville, Margaret. Death Talk: The Case Against Euthanasia and Physician- Assisted Suicide. Quebec: McGill- Queen’s University Press, 2001. 205-217. Willke, J.C. Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia: Past and Present. Cincinnati: Hayes Publishing, 1998. 1-16. Gittleman, D.K. "Euthanasia and Physician-assisted Suicide." Southern Medical Journal. Vol. 92. 1999.

Television and Media - Is Iraq the Next Big Hit for Reality TV? Essay

Iraq – The Next Big Hit for Reality TV We went into Iraq with a heroic action movie playing in our heads, but the photographs from Abu Ghraib showed us another movie. Not Independence Day but Kill Bill—and, in the deluge of new photos and videotapes, Kill Bill 2. Yet for all that the photographs from the Iraqi prison invite comparison to big-budget depravity, this is to give the perpetrators too much creative credit. Ultimately, the better comparison is not to the imaginative chaos of a Quentin Tarentino movie but to the mundane chaos of reality TV. To compare the kind of humiliation suffered by the prisoners in Abu Ghraid to reality TV may seem in bad taste. The shows deal with middle-class men and women who have willingly chosen, based on some twisted idea of celebrity, to subject themselves to public humiliation. The photos deal with citizens of a conquered nation whose humiliation is coerced. The prisoners are literally and figuratively a world away from the caterwauling TV contestants. What is similar about the two situations, however, is the underlying dynamic and the role the camera plays in both. Reality TV is the enactment, for entertainment purposes, of primal drives. These are the drives that Freud identified as libido (the drive for sex) and aggression (the drive to destroy). The two archetypal shows in the reality line-up are Survivor and The Bachelor. The former favors aggression; the latter, libido. Other reality shows can be viewed as spin-offs of one or the other of these two: The Apprentice, for example, is Survivor set in the corporate board room; Extreme Make-over is The Bachelor set in a plastic surgeon’s office. Although in most of these shows, one drive predominates, it is impossible, as Fr... ... purgation and a penance—and perhaps in some cases it does. But the general result is to normalize the unfettered display of aggression and libido. In a culture saturated with the exposure of primal impulses, constraint no longer carries any weight. The camera has given lease to the idea that everything is permitted when it is exhibited in public view. Who can blame the soldiers, then, for behaving as though they were on a reality TV show? The humiliation to which they subjected their prisoners probably seemed to them like the antics perpetrated on Survivor only a few months earlier. Because cameras were present, their behavior probably seemed more acceptable rather than less. After all, if one takes a picture, it enters the culture of representation where it becomes normalized into a prank, a spectacle, or, at worst, the unfortunate consequence of losing a game.

How Social Networking Makes Money Essay

A.Social networking is a daily activity for most of us. Facebook, Twitter all this sites have hundreds of millions of users. One thing I always think about, are these sites are businesses? It’s free to join and you do not need to pay to start building networking. B.If we take a look at the stock of the entire social media network we will find that the companies are valued in the billions of dollars. It’s a booming industry. How do they make money? Reasons A.First thing, social networks start with funding from Venture capitalists. a. Facebook & Google are the great example. They can reach very large audience at a very low cost. b. Creative Products & Promotions for example face book’s gifts. B.Data mining a. Data is the base of any business. It is potentially very valuable for companies’ growth. b. Some companies are â€Å"eavesdropping† on conversations, reading what users are saying about their products or competitor’s product. For Example Yelp, Twitter C. Advertising & fees the most common way for websites to generate revenue. a. A social networking site like Facebook has millions of active users. Access to that enormous user base is a valuable commodity. b. Charging for membership fees: To use certain features of the site they ask for the upgrade. For example, linked in. Linked in withhold key features from users until they choose to upgrade to a premium account. I hope this gives you a sense of why the market shares are in billions for these sites and where social networks are and where they are going to be in future. It is a growing industry and one can actually start making money from social networking sites. Invest your time learning how to make money with this.

Effects of Music on Teenagers Essay

Every teenager who listens to music interprets the lyrics in a different way. Some people take out a deeper meaning from the lyrics, even going to the point of saying that music â€Å"saves their lives†. Music holds a powerful effect on an individual because it can stimulate and provoke multiple responses—physiological, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral. But, every genre of music gives its own message to teenagers. Some may enforce positive actions, while some condone negative actions. Rap has the negative status of objectifying women and promoting gang violence. On the other hand, rock has a positive reputation because it helps people cope with their problems and identify with their peers. Everyone, teenagers included, is susceptible to internalizing the messages they hear over and over again. The degree of those messages determines the effect on the teenager. Every genre of music effects teenagers in a different ways. In some genres, like rock, the positive effects outrun the negative, and in some genres, like rap, the exact opposite happens. Structurally, the rock and rap genres has noticeable differences between them. Generally, the sound of rock music rotates around guitars, bass, drums, and the keyboard. There is a large tendency to focus on instruments, especially the guitar, which requires considerable skill to play. For example, the rock band Fall Out Boy consists of four members who each play their own instrument while one member does vocals and plays an instrument. Alternatively, rap’s main focus is free styling and looping words to create a â€Å"story† in a flowing rhyme, keeping it in sync with the beat. In most cases, like the rapper Machine Gun Kelly, the artist preforms by themselves with the assistance with a DJ or MC to play the musical tracks for the songs. Rap displays a larger emphasis on lyrics, while ro ck likes to have a variety of sounds. In the rock genre, it’s all about expression. Rock music can speak about all kinds of topics, from love to some not so pleasant. Many rock musicians sing about real issues that teens are going through, which helps teens find motivation. Adolescents sometimes find it difficult to communicate with older people, most of the time because of ideological differences. This often makes teens with problems shy away from seeking help and guidance. Teens find hope and encouragement when they listen to music that talks about problems they are going through. The identification they are experiencing with the rock song  lyrics can also help teens to become more tolerant and open-minded. A study published for the 9th International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition reported that mood regulation is one of the most important reasons why people listen to their favorite music (McCammon). Rock music can help mood regulation in teenagers, especially females who are prone to mood swings and depression. For example, the song Eye of the Tige r by Survivor can cause teens to associate with the underdog. The song provides a positive message, while keeping an uplifting tone throughout the whole song. The music provides depressed teens with a mode to forget their problems and participate in healthy activities, such as dancing. While rock has been given a positive reputation for allowing teenagers to express themselves, some have given it a poor reputation because it can intensify emotions. While those people who are naturally happy and cheerful are less likely to have effects from the negative lyrics, other, less fortunate teens might not be the same. Adolescents who are susceptible to negative, violent, or depressive thoughts are more likely to have those feelings, and act on them, after listening to rock music. At the same time, if a person is not experiencing those negative thoughts, the music can act as a catalyst, causing the teen to have these thoughts and urges. The rap genre is often given a negative reputation for the way it effects teenagers. Critics of the genre say that the music objectifies women and promotes drug use. For example, the song 9 Problems by Jay-Z, repeat edly refers to a woman as a â€Å"bitch.† This song allowed women to be categorized under the vulgar name â€Å"bitch†, because of the high reception the song received in the media (The Portrayal of Women Within Popular Music). A recent study by WebMD reports that teenagers who listen to rap music are more likely to have babies and engage in risky sexual behavior (Kirchheimer). Apparently, this behavior is because the lyrics in many rap songs promote the idea of women as nothing more than sexual objects. Correspondingly, it was shown that youth who listened to rap songs were more likely to get involved with drugs. This is because in some songs, the artists refer to drugs that the person has not heard of, which sparks their curiosity to learn and most likely try the new drugs. The rap genre can also give teenagers a false sense of belonging. When they hear about, or see in the videos, expensive possessions, they feel that if they spend their money to buy that stuff, they can be just like the  people in the videos. The media then uses this to their advantage to market products to the younger, naà ¯ve generations. Even though rap is seen as a vulgar music genre by a large population, it can be positive for teenagers. It makes a person feel good about who they are because even if they may not live a good life, they can relate to the lyrics in a particular song. This is different than the false sense of belonging because instead of the individual trying to fit in, they are finding the place where they fit in, while not changing themselves. Rap lyrics also help youth feel free and powerful. They are free to express what they want to express. Listeners of the music have even gone to the extent of calling the rap genre â€Å"a religion for troubled youth† because it provides them with an outlet to express themselves and something to believe in. It is evident that rock and rap are very different genres that expose different messages to teenagers. But, no matter the genre of music, studies have shown that the use of music videos show an increased open-mindedness to deviant behavior among teenagers. The music videos reinforce what is being heard in the lyrics with the use of visuals. They usually exhibit sexual innuendo, acts of aggression, and gender stereotypes. Research has shown that, after watching videos, men said it was necessary to pursue the women to an inappropriate extent, while women thought it was annoying and/or disturbing. Men scored higher in relations to attitudes for sexual overtones, while women scored higher on the acceptance of interpersonal violence. The results of the study also showed that women who were often subjected to violent music videos were more accepting of violence. Also, men had a greater acceptance of sexual stereotyping and rape myths after watching the videos (The Effects of Violent Music Content On Teens). Over time, people have stereotyped genres of music. Sometimes the music is seen as positive and uplifting. But other times it is seen as negative and downgrading. In the end, the way that music effects teenagers all depends on how the tee n acts and interprets the music. Depending on their emotional and mental status, they can have different reactions to the music than someone who has different feelings than them.