The Enlightenment Was Rife With Skepticism, Self-Reliance

The Enlightenment was rife with skepticism, self-reliance and discovery. Voltaire’s Candide boasts each within its three main themes; the critique of philosophical systems (optimism, pessimism, and empiricism,) along with social criticism, and utopian ideologies. Voltaire viciously attacks the Church, the Aristocracy, and the Military. This was perfectly in line with the core ideals behind the enlightenment, a time where philosophers believed in using reason and scientific experiments in lieu of Christian dogma and tradition. Voltaires Candide perfectly encapsulates the ideology behind the Enlightenment through its’ illustrious acrimony and skepticism against the church, military, and philosophical systems. The Old Regime upheld†¦show more content†¦It does him little good as he is then hung. Friars are to remain impoverished, it is ironic that this Friar so feverishly wanted over such possessions. Later on, Friar Giroflee admits he hates his profession and in addition, admits to caring only for personal wealth and gain, â€Å"It is true I have preached a few bad sermons the have brought me in a little money, of which the prior stole half, while the rest serves to maintain my girls.† (Voltaire: 68) Not only is this a confession of the money hungry church, it is also another example of promiscuity within the church, as he is using the money from his â€Å"bad† sermons to pay for prostitutes such as Paquette. Voltaire seeks to reveal the corruption in the old regime. Not only was there corruption in the church, there was corruption in the military hence the heavy criticism of the military abundant in Candide. An example of this scorning is when Candide is forced into the Bulgarian army after toasting to the Bulgarian King, â€Å"‘He is the best of kings, and we must drink to his health’† said the Bulgarian, to which Candide replied â€Å"Oh! Very willingly, gentlemen,’ and he drank. ‘That is e nough’ they tell him. ‘Now you are the help - the hero of the bulgarians.’† (Candide: 4) With the sip of a drink, Candide is enlisted, tricked into joining the Bulgarian army where he is severely beaten and almost dies, until the Bulgarian King

Cost Reduction Strategy Free Essays

string(45) " relationships with suppliers of components\." Introduction Cost reduction is a key aim of business during the current economic downturn. In addition to intense competition for opportunity, businesses face myriad challenges in the sustenance of their activities and operations, often leading them to research on and implement cost-cutting strategies. These strategies are also essential for companies in their endeavour to create even higher profit margins on their products and services (Hines et al, 2004). We will write a custom essay sample on Cost Reduction Strategy or any similar topic only for you Order Now Cost reduction strategies often come at the expense of growth potential with businesses often having to juggle, on the one hand their quest for growth, and on the other reduction of costs (Hill et al, 2001; Womack and Jones, 2003). Cost reduction can be necessitated by several factors including revenue declines with sustainability pegged on costs having to drop to keep pace; fixed cost base with companies having to operate at a relatively high percentage of capacity in order to turn a profit, a perilous trap; as well as, creeping costs which result from the evolution to complexity of processes increasing variety of expenses, increase in entitlements over time, and the continual incurring of traditional non-essential expenses (Salvador et al., 2002). Modular production techniques in both manufacturing and service industries bring together three well-known cost reduction methods including: economies of scope, outsourcing and product/service redesign. This paper discusses these methods exploring ways in which they contribute to the reduction of costs with particular regard to three businesses in specific industries: a car assembler, a supermarket chain, and an airline. It begins by defining the three cost reduction methods focused upon which forms the basis upon which ways in which cost reduction can be realised in the selected industries are discussed in latter sections. Cost-reduction strategies Economies-of-scope refers to the changes in average costs resulting from the changes in the output mix between two or more products. It refers to the potential cost savings resulting from joint production of products and offer of services that are at times not directly related. An example of this is when diverse product production or service delivery share company management structure, administration systems, marketing departments, and production facilities and other facilities (Silverman, 1999; Hines et al, 2004). Economies of scope provide firms with two key benefits: it enables the lowering of average costs of production resulting from the spread of large overhead costs across a broad range of products which enables higher profits for the company or reduced prices for customers; it also enables the diversification of revenue streams which reduces the risks associated with product failure (Hand?eld and Nichols, 2002). Outsourcing entails contracting out non-core business functions to third-party providers. It is viewed oftentimes as a means through which firms can cope with increasing competition through the quest for cheaper suppliers, with cost reduction being the primary motive and not the underlying economic force driving it (Wynstra et al., 2001). In some other instances, a company may choose to delegate bulky, time-consuming and intensive production processes to external contractors so as to enhance focus on core business functions even if costs are not the motivation (Campbell, 1992). External entities take charge of assigned tasks enabling the company to enhance focus on specialty lines or core business which earns a significant proportion of the company’s revenues. Product/service re-design refers to improvements on product or service and model changes that may result in greater efficiency gains in production or the reduction of inputs/raw materials required thereby leading to reduction in costs (Salvador et al., 2002). Product redesign may also enable the enhancement of demand through its appeal to customers or new markets thereby enhancing revenues accrued. A.Car assembler In view of a stand-alone car assembler focused on its core activity engaging in market transactions with external suppliers from which it buys or rents materials, components and other specialized inputs, and sells assembled cars onwards to independent distributors, the achievement of reduction in costs can be achieved through the pursuit of strategies such as outsourcing, product or service redesign and those that enable the realization of scope economics. Economies of scope The highly focused organizational structure of a car assembler could be tweaked to enhance scope in pursuit of strategies such as vertical integration; horizontal integration or unrelated diversification. Vertical integration Vertical integration involves the uptake by a business of tasks and functions hitherto undertaken by players participating within its supply chain, either up or downstream (Silverman, 1999). Asset specificity is pronounced in the car assembly industry with component parts such as tyres, engines, among other parts often being purchased from specialist suppliers. The assembler’s engagement with these suppliers under pure market exchanges can have several challenges including unsustainable costs which make it prudent for the company to reach further along the supply chain, enhancing its capacity to produce the required components (Wynstra et al., 2001). The savings accrued from both the production of requisite component parts and conducting the assembly processes and/or engaging in later processes such as distribution, sales and marketing make vertical integration a significant competitive advantage, with reduced costs having the potential of enabling price reductions and/or enha nced profitability. Horizontal integration Horizontal integration involves the uptake of production processes of businesses across the industry such as those of another existing car assembler through acquisitions or mergers or diversification into related industries such technology production (technology-related diversification) (Silverman, 1999). It may also include customer-related diversification which encompasses the extension of the product range or broadening of the portfolio of business products offered (Hand?eld and Nichols, 2002). Such integration enables a business to spread its costs, especially the high fixed cost base characteristic of the car assembly industry, over a wider range of revenue streams achieving overall efficiency and fully utilizing transferable proprietary know-how, skills and technologies. It also enables the shared utilization of other sources of economies of scope including purchasing, advertising, and research and development (Womack and Jones, 2003). To avoid possible adverse consequences of asset specificity in the industry, major assemblers have sought to develop long-term close, collaborative relationships with suppliers of components. You read "Cost Reduction Strategy" in category "Essay examples" These relationships are designed to tap into the benefits of vertical integration though costs such as would be incurred in the case of complete mergers are avoided. These become the critical pathways through which modern businesses create value (Hines et al, 2004)). Sharing and efficient utilization of resources results in significant cost savings in light of enhanced revenue inflows and the spread out of costs over diverse product and service offerings. Outsourcing Outsourcing for a car assembler would entail contracting external entities to undertake bulky non-core activities so that the assembler can maintain a lean organizational structure and enable enhanced focus on activities it considers to be its core competences (Sanchez, 2000). It is often the case that production costs incurred by an external supplier are smaller probably because of larger scale or superior learning which could be difficult to replicate, or other specialization advantage (Salvador et al., 2002). A lean structure and focus would imply reduction in staffing and asset acquisition costs, as well as transactional costs needed to cover for the completion of the outsourced tasks, costs which are passed on to the contractors (Womack and Jones, 2003). Savings on such fronts, which may include throughput on operations, may be used to enhance performance and quality of core activities to achieve greater competitive advantage, or they may be factored in for price reductions or profits. Some component manufacturers are moving into the final assembly segment of operations encouraged by major car makers. Such include Valmet (Finland) which assembles cars for Saab, Lada and Porsche, and Austrian company Steyr which assembles Chrysler and Mercedes. This move is enabled by policies of extensive outsourcing. Toyota, on the other hand, built itself a flexible manufacturing system in which it is heavily reliant on subsidiaries and other suppliers, with its degree of outsourcing typically estimated at 60-70% (Hampson, 1999). Product/service redesign In the case of a car assembler working with expensive items such as steel, the cube-square rule finds appropriate application for cost reduction. This rule explains that doubling the diameter of a hollow sphere increases its volume eightfold, but its surface area is only increased fourfold (Womack and Jones, 2003). In a production process, the cost of a vessel or component may vary with surface area while its capacity varies with volume. Such balancing in design and reworking of components and parts may result in significant cost savings with regard to expensive inputs in car assembly such as steel (Salvador et al., 2002). Toyota’s success is majorly attributed to its Toyota Production System (TPS) which is a system of continuous improvement, an interlocking of many strategies and business practices developed through iterations over time and learning which create complementary synergistic effects for Toyota and which are difficult to emulate (Hampson, I., 1999). This system enhances strategic fit and complementarity which yields economies of scope which enables Toyota to meet customer demand for diverse models to meet varied preferences, and with less wastage than would be in mass production systems (Campbell, 1992; Hill et al, 2001). This strategic fit enables the company have a significant competitive advantage with the resultant efficiencies saving up costs. B.Supermarket chain Considering a supermarket chain which is involved in basic retail activities including reception of goods from producers, stocking in shelves, and checking out customers who make purchases, reduction in costs could be achieved through pursuit of scope economics, outsourcing of non-core processes, and/or redesign of products or services. Economies of scope The pursuit of economies of scope can be achieved through linked supply chains which entails integrating a vertical supply chain, as well as operating two or more hitherto independent businesses under centralized management (horizontal integration) (Abernathy et al, 2000). With optimal efficiency, this strategy results in productivity gains, waste reduction and cost improvements. Vertical integration To get fresh products, Morrison’s, a UK supermarket chain, has reached back through its supply chain to the farm, cutting off middlemen and warehouses which would have led to increases in costs to cover the margins of the individual participants in the chain. This, as well as its ownership of its own slaughterhouses, bakeries and food preparation sites, has significantly enhanced its efficiency and enabled reductions in costs, a distinctive competitive advantage (Morrisons, 2012). Horizontal integration Supermarkets have economies of scope when they offer a variety of products or services that do not comprise the usual basic goods and services available in supermarket stores (Abernathy et al, 2000). Such products and services may include ready cooked meals, financial services (such as retail banking), fuel stations, clothing and furniture, among other diverse provisions through a single service infrastructure, the store. These not only meet today’s busy shopper’s preference for a one-stop shop, but also lead to the provision of a complementary variety of products concentrated on the supermarket’s core competence (Hines et al, 2004). This results in the distribution of costs over a wide and diverse range of products resulting in overall savings. The expansion of stores such as Morrison’s, Tesco and Sainsbury into various service-provision segments (demand-driven diversification) so as to appeal to the modern consumer illustrates this strategy (Morrisons, 2012). A supermarket chain may also pursue related diversification building upon and extending existing capability, resources or expertise to achieve greater competitiveness. Cost savings are enabled when a business transfers expertise in one business to a new business, as well as in the businesses sharing operational skills and know-how, facilities, equipment or other existing assets including intangible assets such as corporate core competence (Hand?eld and Nichols, 2002). This can be illustrated by the entry of supermarket chains such as Morrison’s, Tesco and Sainsbury into the convenience store segment in pursuit of customer preference for smaller stores and small frequent shopping trends. This venture is in order to supplement waning revenues of larger stores (Morrisons, 2012). Outsourcing The progress of the general-purpose technology such as information technology (IT) enables the reduction of market transaction costs which leads to increased capacity for outsourcing (Abernathy et al, 2000). Outsourcing for a supermarket chain may entail contracting suppliers to undertake time-consuming and logistically challenging tasks such as warehousing and distribution, as well as new services such as the ready-cooked food segments. Such a strategy is necessitated if the existing mode of in-house performance of these tasks is more costly than obtaining it through market transactions or some form of long term contractual relationship (Hines et al, 2004). Efficiency is thereby enhanced in the conduct of the supermarket’s core activities, reducing costs associated with outsourced tasks and enhancing potential revenues increases. Product or service redesign Many supermarket chains are seeking to tap into new segments such as the online marketplace not only to meet customer preferences but also to reduce costs associated with its usual processes (Abernathy et al, 2000). In this customers order for product items which are then sent to their stated locations cutting off a number of processes that were hitherto undertaken thereby enabling significant savings. Morrison’s, Tesco and Sainsbury, among other supermarket chains are pursuing such new market segments in pursuit of enhanced competitiveness and customer preference (Morrisons, 2012). Airline We consider an airline whose business provides basic services of passenger travel including scheduling, preparation and planning for flights, check-in, actual flight to destinations, and customer service. Pursuit of scope economics, outsourcing and product or service redesign which are the cost reduction methods focused upon in this paper are herein discussed with regard to an airline business. Economies of scope In this regard, vertical and horizontal integration mechanisms are discussed outlining their contribution to cost reduction. Vertical integration Vertical integration for an airline may entail the uptake of activities beyond its usual scope such as ticketing commonly undertaken by local service providers along its supply chain. Progress into such fronts is greatly enhanced by developments in internet technologies which enable customers to book flights, buy and print out tickets online, reducing the need for staff and investment on facilities dedicated to this task (Abernathy et al, 2000). This removes the costs of commissions paid out to the service providers as well as related organizational costs resulting in cost savings and greater efficiency. Horizontal integration To achieve economies of scope and thereby reductions in cost, an airline might venture into the cargo segment, customizing some of its existing planes for this purpose and delegating some staff under its organizational structure to run processes associated with cargo handling and transport. Through this related diversification of operations, the firm is able to build upon or extend its existing capability, resources or areas of expertise to achieve greater competitiveness (Hand?eld and Nichols, 2002). An airline could also pursue mergers or scope acquisitions, to enhance or extend its product portfolio. This is a common trend in the industry with airlines frequently collaborating and coordinating their activities to achieve efficiency gains as well as to widen their geographical markets, reaching to routes across the globe and specific markets served by partner airlines which might not be feasible for it as a single entity (VBA, 2011). It has also become a common trend for airlines to invest in hotels and other facilities in the hospitality industry so as to tap onto an existing demand, as well as to reduce their costs in cases of delays and other unforeseen circumstances which usually result in added costs for the airline. This strategy turns the airlines previous challenges into strengths, as well as providing a revenue stream from related divestiture. Horizontal integration can be illustrated by Virgin airlines in its strategic alliances with Etihad Airways and Delta Air Lines which enhance its reach to the TransPacific Los Angeles route and the Abu Dhabi route, its gateway to Europe, Africa and the Middle East, with the collaboration benefiting all the partner airlines (VBA, 2011). Outsourcing Outsourcing for an airline is undertaken to streamline operations and enhance service quality (Wynstra et al., 2001). Tasks such as aircraft maintenance and ground support, as well as food processing for service on-board are labour-intensive and specialized tasks that can be outsourced if costs of contracting them are favourable. This would enable the airline to enhance focus on customer service and operations related to flight reducing overheads and other cost requirements. An example is Navitaire, a service supplier for airlines, which offers an extensive global distribution suite enabling low-cost reservations which has enabled the improvement of profitability especially among the low-cost airlines using the service, lower operational and distribution costs and generation of ancillary revenues (Abernathy et al, 2000). Product/service redesign To enhanced service offerings in the competitive business environment and, as well, to rein in on rising costs, it is incumbent upon airline companies to conduct frequent network reviews, fleet realignments, operational integration so as to ensure that they remain profitable, effective and efficient in their processes. The company in the redesign and realignment should be bold enough to undertake thought-out exit from the non-profitable routes lowering its liabilities and costs. An example is Virgin Australia’s endeavour at restructuring in 2011 following its poor performance evident in its 2010 financial results (VBA, 2011). Conclusion For sustainability, the aim of the cost-cutting strategy is to maximize efficiency without compromising growth potential. To achieve this, companies need to identify core competencies upon which focus is enhanced and efficiency improved, with the non-core functions being trimmed and consolidated to achieve reduction in unnecessary costs (Hines et al, 2004). Such savings can be reinvested in critical assets, enhancing core competencies and thereby improving overall efficiency. References Abernathy, F., J., Dunlop, and J., Hammond, 2000. â€Å"Retailing and supply chains in the information age.† In: Technology in Society, Vol. 22, pp. 5-31. Campbell, A., 1992. â€Å"Building Core Skills.† In: Andrew Campbell and Kathleen Luchs: Strategic Synergy. London: Butterworth Heinemann. Hand?eld, R., and E., Nichols, 2002. Supply Chain Redesign: Transforming Supply Chains into Integrated Value Systems. Financial Times. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Hill, M., R., Ireland, and R.., Hoskisson, 2001. Strategic Management: Competitiveness and Globalization. Fourth Edition. South-Western College Publishing, Hines, P., M., Holweg, and N., Rich, 2004. â€Å"Learning to evolve: a review of contemporary lean thinking.† In: International Journal of Operations Production Management, Vol. 24 No. 10, pp. 994-1012. Morrisons, 2012. Food with thought: Corporate responsibility review 2011/12. Wm Morrisons Supermarkets PLC. Sanchez, R., 2000. â€Å"Modular architectures, knowledge assets and organizational learning: new management processes for product creation.† In: International Journal of Technology Management, Vol. 19, No 6. Salvador, F., C., Forza, and M., Rungtusanatham, 2002. â€Å"Modularity, product variety, production volume, and component sourcing: theorizing beyond generic prescriptions.† In: Journal of Operations Management, Vol. 20, pp. 549-75. Silverman, B., 1999. â€Å"Technological resources and the direction of corporate diversification: Toward an integration of the Resource-Based View and Transaction Cost Economics.† In: Management Science, 45 (8), 1109–1124. VBA financial report, 2011. Virgin Australia group of companies. 30th June. Viewed from: http://www.virginaustralia.com/au/en/about-us/media/2011/VA-FY11-ASX/ Womack, J., and D., Jones, 2003. Lean Thinking, 2nd ed., Free Press Business, London. Wynstra, F., A., Weele, and M., Weggemann, 2001. â€Å"Managing supplier involvement in product development: three critical issues.† In: European Management Journal, Vol. 19 No. 2, pp. 157-66. Hampson, , 1999. â€Å"Lean Production and the Toyota Production System: the Case of the Forgotten Production Concepts.† In: Economics and Industrial Democracy, Volume 20: 369-391 How to cite Cost Reduction Strategy, Essay examples

Driving Journal of Business and Management - MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Driving Journal of Business and Management. Answer: Introduction The efficient working of an organization hugely depends on the way its employees perform. Employees however need to be encouraged in order to get the best out of them. The impetus thus, is on the organization to induce a working environment that motivates the employees to work harder and with total dedication (Abbah 2014). Many ways are there by which managers can motivate employees to perform well. Theories of organizational management and organizational behavior are in abundance that allows managers to utilize these in the workplace. Starting from Taylor, several theorists including Weber, Hawthorne and Fayol have proposed different organizational behavior theories that have an influence on the way organizations implement rules at the workplace. Systems theory, contingency theory and the socio-technical approaches are some theories that defined organizational behavior in the modern era (?nday 2016). The essay discusses factors that influence organizational behavior and motivates employees to perform better. In addition, the essay sheds light on the role of managers in extracting the best performance from the employees by implementing strategies that adhere to the organizational setting. Organizational management and behavior Every organization looks to achieve positive results of its operations but it does not get the desired result always. Managing an organization effectively helps organizations largely to achieve the desired outcome. Organizational management thus refers to the style or method of management that enables managers to divide the whole operation into several stages. By doing this, the managers are able to paint a clear picture of the targets of each department. Ferdous (2016) asserts that every organization depends on the numerous theories of organizational management to carry out its day-to-day function. Organizational theories, he further states, have been occupied with the creation of general ideas and advances that are suitable to any organization. Every organization has its own objectives, strategies, hierarchy, and dynamic ideas that work in tandem to produce the best results. Employee motivation is one of the foremost aspects that organizations look to achieve. Yang, Liu and Wang (2013), elaborate organization theories as knowledge systems that study and elucidate organizational structure, its utility, process and its group and individual behavior. Organizational management thus refers to the process of accomplishing goals and objectives through the utilization and maintenance of resources that include employees as well. Factors influencing productive performance Several factors work together in an organization that culminates in the success of an organization. However, it is imperative to state that extracting productive performance from the employees must be the top priority. In order to do so, a manager has to think out of the box and come out with unique strategies to yield good results. In the views of Kamau (2015), organizations in the modern competitive world have to consider employee motivation as a powerful tool to encourage productive performance. The author believes that this would enable the company to achieve long-term success. Some factors that affect productive performance include designing of jobs, the working conditions, motivation and rewards and goal setting. Job design is the process of allocating specific tasks to groups or individuals. Assigning tasks to specific groups or individuals ensures meeting the organizational requirements in addition with the needs of the employees. Frederick Taylor was probably amongst the first theorists who laid stress on job design and in fact proposed the first ever job design theory. The Scientific Management Theory proposed by Taylor involves the allocation of jobs equally to workers and managers. He devised the strategy of providing incentives and rewards to motivate workers and enhance efficiency in performance. In addition, Taylor stressed on proper training of employees to manage the assignment for which they are accountable. Later, the Socio-Technical Systems Approach was introduced that acted as a modified version of Taylors theory. While Taylor focused on individual workers, the Systems Approach laid stress on group autonomy. According to this approach, when individuals work in a group, they are encouraged to provide valuable inputs that elevate organizations performance in general. Apart from the job design, productive performance also depends on the kind of working conditions that are available to the employees. According to a report published by the International Labor Organization, the working conditions in small and medium enterprises (SMEs) largely contribute to improved performance. The report designates several elements as being part of the working condition like the working time, rest hours, wages, training and such others (Ilo.org 2018). Studies have found that poor working conditions like long hours of work, little to no rest hours lead to unsatisfactory performance. Jayaweera (2015) reveals that the physical and psychological burden that employees are compelled to carry on their shoulders results in reduced performance. He cited the example of hotel workers in England to draw upon the conclusion that working conditions play a significant role in productive performance. Kuranchie-Mensah and Amponsah-Tawiah (2016), while conducting a study on Ghanas mining companies, found that motivation is a key tool to help employees overcome the stress of mining fields. They further point out that rewards can attract competent employees that could contribute greatly towards achieving organizational goals. Goal setting is another important factor that ensures improved performance. Dr. Edwin A. Locke even proposed the goal-setting theory in the 1960s that explained the importance of setting goals for improving performance. According to the theory, employees can be motivated to perform better when they are given a fixed set of goals that needs to be achieved within deadline. These goals work as a fuel for generating a sense of purpose amongst employees. Muogbo (2013) suggests that the goal setting theory works in certain situations that contribute to productive performance. According to the author, goals that are difficult to achieve bring out the best from an employee compared to the goals that can be achieved easily. This was proved from a study in Nigeria where the author discovered that workers craved for more when it came to achieving difficult goals; they had the hunger to finish the tasks and achieve those goals. Role of managers In any organization, managers play the most significant role in ensuring smooth functioning of the organization. Their job demands practical knowledge of the highest level. In the words of (Chun et al. 2013), the manager performs tasks that concern the entire organization unlike others that concerns specific departments only. A manager has the responsibility to look after each department although there are personnel to look after those departments. This shows the complexity of a managers role. The basic function that managers are responsible to perform includes planning, organizing, decision-making, staffing, controlling and directing. However, the most important role among these is directing or actuating. This involves the process of coaching and motivating workers. According to Mishra, Boynton and Mishra (2014), it is the most important job of the manager as it decides whether an organization is functioning smoothly or not. He argues that many organizations fail to understand that employees are the most important assets and they must be fueled in a positive way to achieve the desired goal. Managers are the ones responsible for allocating tasks to different individuals based on their qualification and skills. In order to ensure productive performance, managers have to scrutinize the specific skill sets each employee has. The manager must also make sure that assigning tasks does not lead to conflict between employees. He or she must make the employees feel valuable and equally important to the organization. The second thing managers have to do is to set up a working environment that gives employees a breathing space. Many traditional and modern workplaces serve as great examples of a perfect working environment (Fortune.com 2018). Companies like Google, Daimler, Dell and a few others provide excellent working conditions for their employees and the result reflects from their success. Next, managers have the authority and the opportunity to implement incentives and rewards strategy to motivate employees. It is inherent in human nature that they are attracted towards rewards. When it comes to ensuring productive performance, there cannot be a better way than to give rewards and incentives. It is an important job of the managers because they have to take care of the overall budget and then offer incentives so that it does not burden the companys financial condition. Perhaps one of the most important roles of managers is setting goals for individuals as well as for the company. Martinsuo (2013) believes that managers have the responsibility to set goals that comply with the overall target of an organization. In other words, managers must ensure that they set such goals that produce high quality performance from employees and in turn contribute to the overall achievement of the organization. Managers can draft certain questions that relate to goal setting like the relevance of goals to the business, if the goals are controllable and achievable by employees or not and most importantly, whether the goals adhere to productive performance objectives. In the modern setting that is characterized by the onslaught of globalization, organizational management has acquired an enhanced importance. Companies are looking forward to devise strategies that cater to the modern needs to keep them alive, and fit in the competitive market. A search for new forms of organizations is ongoing, driven by the changes in the economy and nature of competition (Hbr.org, 2018). Managers are entrusted with increased responsibilities to manage as well as communicate the goals and objectives of the organization to its subordinates. With the shift in the economic world, there has been considerable change in the parameters that define productive performance. Designing jobs, working environments, goal setting, rewards and incentives that work as motivational factors for employees now also define the parameters for competition. Conclusion Thus, it needs to be stated that managers must realize the true importance of their roles in effecting productive performance from the employees. In regards to the factors that influence productive performance, motivation holds the key. Motivated employees are invaluable assets to an organization. This however, is not entirely realized by many as they direct most of their attention towards operations, production and results. Many organizations treat employees as machines that are required to produce the desired outcome else they shall be replaced. This attitude as resulted in the downfall of big corporations as evident in history. The essay highlights the different factors influencing productive performance and role of managers influencing the processes. Theories and approaches have been explained in order to paint a clear picture of the importance of taking care of these factors for improved performance. It is however recommended that further studies can be carried out to analyze th e importance of managerial skills in identifying the basic requirements for productive performance. Further, it is also suggested to evaluate the relevance of traditional methods of motivation in the postmodern organizational context. References: Abbah, M.T., 2014. Employee motivation: The key to effective organizational management in Nigeria.IOSR Journal of Business and Management,16(4), pp.01-08. Chun, J.S., Shin, Y., Choi, J.N. and Kim, M.S., 2013. How does corporate ethics contribute to firm financial performance? The mediating role of collective organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behavior.Journal of Management,39(4), pp.853-877. Ferdous, J., 2016. Organization Theories: From Classical Perspective.International Journal of Business, Economics and Law,9(2), pp.1-6. Fortune.com 2018.The 25 Best Global Companies to Work For. [online] Fortune. Available at: https://fortune.com/2016/10/26/best-global-companies/ [Accessed 13 Jan. 2018]. Hbr.org 2018.How to Implement a New Strategy Without Disrupting Your Organization. [online] Harvard Business Review. Available at: https://hbr.org/2006/03/how-to-implement-a-new-strategy-without-disrupting-your-organization [Accessed 13 Jan. 2018]. Ilo.org 2018.Can better working conditions improve the performance of SMEs?. [online] Ilo.org. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/---emp_ent/documents/publication/wcms_227760.pdf [Accessed 13 Jan. 2018]. Jayaweera, T., 2015. Impact of work environmental factors on job performance, mediating role of work motivation: A study of hotel sector in England.International journal of business and management,10(3), p.271. Kamau, F., 2015. Enhancing Job Motivation To Improve Employee Performance. Case Study Company X. Kuranchie-Mensah, E.B. and Amponsah-Tawiah, K., 2016. Employee motivation and work performance: A comparative study of mining companies in Ghana.Journal of industrial Engineering and Management,9(2), p.255. Martinsuo, M., 2013. Project portfolio management in practice and in context.International Journal of Project Management,31(6), pp.794-803. Mishra, K., Boynton, L. and Mishra, A., 2014. Driving employee engagement: The expanded role of internal communications.International Journal of Business Communication,51(2), pp.183-202. Muogbo, U.S., 2013. The impact of employee motivation on organisational performance (a study of some selected firms in anambra state nigeria).The international journal of engineering and science,2(7), pp.70-80. ?nday, ?., 2016. Classical Organization Theory: From generic management of Socrates to bureaucracy of Weber.International Journal of Business and Management Review,4(1), pp.87-105. Yang, C.X., Liu, H.M. and Wang, X.X., 2013. Organization theories: from classical to modern.Journal of Applied Sciences,13(21), pp.4470-4476.

Men and Women in Internet and Social Media Real

Introduction: Real Problems in Virtual Communication The differences between genders and the peculiarities of the communication within completely male and completely female mini-societies have always been key issues that allowed a borderline to be drawn between the two genders.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Men and Women in Internet and Social Media: Real-Life Stereotypes in the Virtual Communication specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Indeed, predetermining men and women’s roles in society, the aspect of communication between the former allow to establish a paradigm for a certain social behavior, which is completely different between the two genders. As Barrett Davidson (2006) stress, â€Å"it has been shown that women and men use email in ways that replicate gender roles and communication style differences in other forms of communication† (133). In the given paper, the specifics of the use of and access to the Internet and social media are discussed. Social Media Use and Access Established long ago and shaped throughout the centuries of human development, the communication within the female and the male mini-communities has taken certain shapes, which, although slightly changed with the advent of feminism, still remain relatively the same, mostly because of the behavioural patterns established for both genders; as Barrett and Davidson (2006) explain, women’s speech patterns â€Å"are asserted in terms of contrast with male norms, which means they are linked with subordinate roles rather than leadership† (p. 10). However, in the sphere of virtual communication and the social media, due to the considerable change of the environment, behavioural patterns might change, which could lead to different attitudes and different specifics of female and male communication and â€Å"suggest new, variant patterns† (Barrett Davidson, 2006, p. 14). By understanding the way new technologies impacts the communication of men and women, it may be possible to determine how the future communication of the two genders will evolve and whether â€Å"using these technologies will retain or change previous research findings about male and female communication patterns, suggest new, variant patterns [†¦]† (Barrett Davidson, 2006, p. 14).Advertising Looking for essay on gender studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It seems that the cyberspace, first defined as the â€Å"electronic space of data and representations generated, organized, and presented consistently to all viewers connected to a set of globally-networked computers† (Benedikt, 1993), has become much more than merely a storage of facts and information. Entering the sphere of social media and the Internet, people try to determine their new roles and see if the new space differs from the real one (Munusami Ismali, 2009). However, even though the virtual reality allows users to create any image possible and literally break any stereotypes, people still seemingly prefer to act in their online communications according to the gender roles which they have in their real life: â€Å"Because of its anonymity, online communication may be more uninhibited. This may in turn lead to more, rather than fewer, gender-based stereotypical comments† (Barrett Davidson, 2006, p. 133). Analyzing the peculiarities of the communication processes carried out via the Internet and social media, one can see the way gender issues impact the atmosphere and the course of the communication among men and in female circles in the virtual life. When the Virtual Borderline Is Washed Away Online communication differs greatly from the real-life communication, mostly because of the lack of visual support and non-verbal communication. In most cases, the people involved in online communication cannot see each others’ facia l expressions and gestures; as Jones (1998) explained, among the needs that have not been fully satisfied yet, â€Å"the primacy of the visual, the tendency toward the image† (p. 10) â€Å"is being developed† (p. 10). Therefore, allegedly, a user can bend the communication rules much harder in online conversation and reinvent his/her image and even the image of a certain social layer as a whole.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Men and Women in Internet and Social Media: Real-Life Stereotypes in the Virtual Communication specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For example, at times, the lack of visual or audio information allows to erase the gender differences and make it easier for women to integrate into the online communication. F or instance, the infamous problem concerning the way women’s voices differ from those of men is removed: â€Å"I am convinced that the belief that women’s voice s are high-pitched and shrill is one way of disqualifying women from public speaking† (Spender, 1998, p. 40). The Internet and Men: A King in His Castle When taking a closer look at the way in which men communicate in their online communities, one can see distinctly that the internet and the social media are highly gendered and that there is a certain line drawn between the communication within masculine and feminine circles (Ono Zavodny, 2002). Male communication patterns are quite different and the way men socialize online presupposes different approaches (Munusami Ismali, 2009). To top it all, the aims of men and women in their online conversations and the use of social media are quite different – while women pursue a chance to plunge into a relaxing atmosphere and exchange their impressions with each other, men tend to see the Internet and the social media as a way to establish their superiority, take the lead and train their skills in arguing and drawing conclusi ons (Barrett Davidson, 2006). Taking online conversations as another variation of a hunting game where they have either to lose or to win, men use the Internet as the training ground for their skills. The Media Access: Be the Leader Like in most spheres, men tend to be leaders even in the access to the Internet (Ono Zavodny, 2002). Despite the fact that gender inequality is already a history in most countries, women still have less access to the Internet than men, as Ono and Zavodny (2002) claim.Advertising Looking for essay on gender studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More According to the latter, â€Å"about 5 percentage points more likely than women to have access to the Internet in 1996 and 1998 – a statistically insignificant gap – but the gap increased to 10 percentage in 1999 and was significant† (p. 3). As the authors assert, the difference in the rates of access opportunities between men and women can be explained by the lack of technical skills among women (Ono Zavodny, 2003). Media Usage: Veni, Vidi, Vici According to Spender (1998), the way men communicate in real and virtual life is developed â€Å"in the interest of promoting their own primacy† (p. 151). Therefore, men use the Internet and the social media in the same way as they address the issues of the real life, which involves â€Å"such masculine behaviours as verbal dueling, arguing, dominating the floor, being cool and reserved† (Cameron, 2000, p. 88), which must be stemming from the well-known â€Å"masculine social privilege† (p. 145). H ence, it appears that men try to establish their superiority with the help of the online communication, thus, enhancing their status even more and reaching the top of their leadership career. According to what Jones (1998) says, the amount of time taken by men during the use of the social media is much greater than the time women usually spend: â€Å"[†¦] if we consider amount of time spent on computers, the type of equipment, and the influence on programming, everywhere the technologically elite overwhelmingly are men† (p. 109). Internet and Women: Treading the New Territory It can be suggested that the media tend to reinforce social and gender stereotypes for adults and, especially, children, offering certain role models to follow and certain patterns which people have to accept as the only ones that are suitable. As Cameron (1992) emphasizes in her Feminism and linguistic theory, Children are treated differently according to sex both inside and outside the family from the moment they are born. Gendered behaviors are modeled or hem, and explicitly taught to them. Peer groups and social institutions (like schooling and mass media) reinforce norms of masculinity and femininity all the time. All these social processes are embedded in language, and all of them contribute to a child’s linguistic development. (p. 181) Therefore, the behavioural patterns among women in Internet and social media display the typical communication style similar to the one which is accepted in the real-life environment: according to the Gender styles in CMC research (n.d.), women â€Å"†¦displayed features of attenuation — hedging, apologizing, asking questions rather than making assertions†¦ [and] and a personal orientation, revealing thoughts and feelings and interacting with and supporting others.† Such stereotypes contribute to shaping children’s vision of gender and sexuality, which prevents from various sexual deviations (Cameron Kulick, 2003). However, it could be argued that such stereotypical perceptions of people are not the kind of attitude that the 21st century world should experience. Thus, it is rather doubtful that the Internet and social media will revolutionize the sphere of female communication and provide the changes that will offer at least a slight change in the social patterns of female communication. The Media Access: New Experience The access to the media in present days seems hardly an issue; owing to the gender equality principles which have already been established, women and men should have the same amount of opportunities in media access (Ono Zavodny, 2002). Since women are no longer oppressed by men, it must be supposed that women should have the same chances to access Internet as men do. Indeed, as Munusami and Ismali (2009) say, However, if we look into today’s education opportunity and technology advancement, Internet access and gender imbalance is not as significant as th e access is readily available for both genders. In other words, there is a democratic space to which both genders have equal excess to the Internet. However, despite all the equal excess opportunity, gender differences are still apparent in the extent and purpose of its usage. (309) In addition, despite the fact that the access to Internet often demands the technical skills and knowledge which men typically possess, women obviously access Internet almost as frequently as men; according to the statistical data offered by James Stewart (n.d.), women access the Internet in 41.8% of cases, while men make 58.2% of users who access the Internet efficiently (5). Hence, women have fewer opportunities to access the Internet. The Media Usage: Careful Exploration In terms of certain violations that users commit when using social media, men display tendencies to practice interruption of communication much more frequently than women; as Coates (2004) explains, the given specifics of male convers ational strategies stems from childhood: â€Å"Sociolinguistic researchers have found that boys in secondary schools interrupt others more than girls do† (p. 192). Rather similar to the latter, though considerably milder, the approach of overlapping is quite a widespread phenomenon for a conversation among women, which allows to suggest that the female communication is also flawed; however, as Coates (2004) explains, overlapping technique is more frequent â€Å"in mixed conversation† (p. 137). Still, it is important to note that the overlapping technique used by women in their communication serves a different purpose from the one of interruption. While the latter is used to demonstrate power and leadership, overlapping keeps the conversation going and prevents its ceasing or becoming uncomfortable and â€Å"may come into conflict over overlapping talk† (Coates, 2004, p. 137). However, the percentage of women using the Internet still remains lower than the percen tage of men; according to Stewart (n.d.), only 41.6% of the Internet users make women, while men make the remaining 58.4% (5). In addition, out of 41.6% of all Internet female users, 41% are at-home users, as Stewart (n.d.) explains. Gendering of the Access to and Use of the Internet: The Comparison To understand how access to and use of the Internet and social media are gendered, one has to compare the peculiarities of the ways in which men and women communicate online. Therefore, the specifics of the online behavior, the perception of both genders online by their partners in conversation and the typical topics of their conversations must be discussed. Thus, the full picture of the online gender issues and the most widespread stereotypes can be obtained and a complete analysis will be conducted. Men and Women in Social Media: The Similarities It is rather peculiar that, disregarding the differences between the two genders, men and women actually display certain similarities in thei r communication strategies, such as the practice of overlapping (Coates, 2004, p. 137). Transferring these strategies into the sphere of the online conversation, both genders create relatively similar patterns of behavior, which make it possible to suggest that the online space can be used as the grounds for breaking the stereotypical ideas about the way men and women communicate. However, taking a closer look at the way women and men nowadays access the social media, it becomes clear that in present days, women and men have relatively equal chances of accessing the Internet and other social media. According to what Munusami and Ismali (2009) say, both genders have the same opportunities in accessing the Internet and seem to make efficient use of their chances: If we look into today’s education opportunity and technology advancement, Internet access and gender imbalance is not as significant as the access is readily available for both genders. In other words, there is a democ ratic space to which both genders have equal excess to the Internet. (p. 309) Therefore, as for access to the Internet and social media, women and men have presumably the same opportunities. Therefore, the access to the social media is gendered according to the modern idea of equality between a man and a woman. Hence, there is very little difference in the specifics of access to the social media between men and women. Men and Women in Social Media: The Differences Mostly because of the fact that people transfer their real-life social roles into the virtual space, men and women display patterns in their online communication, which are similar to those which they demonstrate in real life, e.g., men play the part of leaders, while women prefer not to get involved into online arguments and conflicts, which, according to Barrett and Davidson, â€Å"women were less likely to resolve† (Barrett Davidson, 2006, p. 212). When it comes to the actual use of the Internet and the social m edia, it can be considered that women are more likely to structure their own style of relationships and create their own universe based on the ideas and patterns introduced earlier by men: â€Å"Men certainly play a pathfinder role in adoption of technology, through particular employment distribution, interests, resources and as a result of marketing, but women quickly follow† (Stewart, n.d., p. 5). Creating their cyberspace reality, in most cases women follow the strategy that men used earlier, and do not attempt to create any new concept, thus, only evolving, but not revolutionizing the virtual communication patterns, softening them to make these patterns more â€Å"feminine†: â€Å"Some findings are that men tend to interrupt, take long, sole-speaker turns, and use direct forms, while women tend to use indirect or modalizing strategies† (Barrett Davidson, 2006, p. 52). In the sphere of online communication, men tend to take matters in their own hands, prefer ring to manage the entire process of communication (Cameron, 1998), leading even to the situation when women are isolated from the communication process. Such actions are quite rough, yet rather typical of the male population of Internet users. According to one of the examples offered by Jones (1998), there are certain pages on the Web that have high traffic, with mostly men having online conversations, for instance, in the sphere of business. Men and Women in Social Media: The Results Nevertheless, one must admit that, in certain cases, men and women display complete equality concerning the use of Internet and social media, without splitting into certain categories and showing specific patterns of communication. According to what Al-Deen Iendricks (2011) say, â€Å"However, Gerlich, Browning, and Westermann (2010) found no significant differences between male and female college students in their Internet usage, social media usage, or beliefs about social media sites in generalâ⠂¬  (p. 139). Nevertheless, most people tend to transfer the specifics of their real-life communication in the Internet and social media. Thus, the typical split between male and female culture exists. Whilst allowing the culture of genders to remain stable, the Internet and social media have made it considerably more flexible: â€Å"Our results indicate that there is no longer a gender gap in Internet usage. However, there continues to be a gender gap in frequency and intensity of use, although this gap appears to have diminished over time† (Ono Zavodny, 2002, p. 11). Conclusion: Gender Issues in Virtual Communication It can be concluded that the development of virtual communication and social media allows women and men explore new tactics of communication. Despite the fact that the first steps made by women in the sphere of the online communication and social media life are quite careful, it could be suggested that that the shift in gender roles owes much to the modern so cial media. Although the social media powered by online communication can be used as a powerful weapon to establish even more prejudices concerning the role of a man and a woman in the present-day world, it is evident that women can try a relatively new behaviour within the boundaries of the Internet and may then stretch it even further, into the real-world social life, which will enable the eradication of numerous stereotypes. Reference List Al-Deen, N H, Iendricks, J 2011, Social media: usage and impact, Lexington Books, Idaho Falls, ID. Barrett, M, Davidson, M 2006, Gender and communication at work, Ashgate Publishing, Farnham, UK. Benedikt, M L 1993, Cityspace, cyberspace, and the spatiology of information, the University of Texas in Austin, Austin, TX. Web. Cameron, D 1992, Feminism and linguistic theory, Macmillan, Basingstoke, NY. Cameron, D 1998, The feminist critique of language: a reader, Routledge, London, UK. Cameron, D 2000, Good to talk?, SAGE, London, UK. Cameron, D Kulick, D 2003, Language and sexuality, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Coates, J 2004, Women, men and languages, 3rd edn, Pearson Education Ltd, Harlow, UK. Gender styles in computer-mediated communication, n.d., Georgetown.edu. Web. Jones, S (ed.) 1998, Cybersociety: revisiting computer-mediated communication and  community, SAGE, London, UK. Munusami, K Ismali, M (2009). â€Å"Influence of role on Internet usage patterns at home among academicians†, Journal of International Social Research, 2(9), 308-318. Ono, H, Zavodny, M (2002). Gender and the Internet. Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA. Spender, D 1998, Man made language, Routledge, London, UK. Stewart, J n.d., Chapter 2: information society, the Internet and fender. A summary of pan-European statistical data. Web. This essay on Men and Women in Internet and Social Media: Real-Life Stereotypes in the Virtual Communication was written and submitted by user Nakia to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Turner Surname Meaning and Origin

Turner Surname Meaning and Origin Turner is most commonly an occupational name for one who worked with a lathe to make items of wood, bone, or metal. The name derives from the Old French tornier and Latin Tornarius, meaning lathe. Other possible origins of the Turner surname include: An occupational name for an official in charge of a tournament, from the Old French tornei, meaning a tournament or contest of armed men.A variant of the surname Turnehare, a nickname for a fast runner from the  Middle English turnen, meaning to turn hare, a fast rabbit.An occupational name for a guard in a tower, from the Middle High German turn, meaning tower.A habitational name for someone from any one of various places named Turna, Turno,  Thurn, etc. This origin can be hard to pinpoint to a specific country, meaning individuals with the Turner surname could have come from Poland, Austria, Germany or any number of other countries. Turner is the 49th most popular surname in the United States and the 27th most common surname in England. Surname Origin:  English, Scottish Alternate Surname Spellings:  TOURNIER, TURNEY, DOERNER, DURNER, TARNER, TERNER, TOURNEAU, TURNOR, THURNER, TOURNER, TOURNOR Famous People Sith the Surname TURNER - 18th and 19th century British landscape painterNat Turner - leader of a violent slave rebellion in VirginiaCharles Henry Turner -  pioneering African-American scientist and scholarIke Turner - RB legend; husband of Tina TurnerTed Turner - founder of CNN; philanthropistKathleen Turner - American actressLana Turner - American film actress and pin-up girlJosh Turner - American country music starJohn Turner - 17th Prime Minister of Canada Where Do People With the TURNER Surname Live? Turner is the worlds 900th most common surname, according to surname distribution data from  Forebears. It is most common in various English speaking countries, including New Zealand where it ranks 30th, England (31st), Australia (34th), Isle of Man (34th), Wales (46th) and the United States (48th). WorldNames PublicProfiler  identifies Turner as most prevalent in the Waitomo District of New Zealand, followed by the Otorohanga District. It also identifies the surname as especially common in Tasmania and Western Australia, as well as East Anglia and West Midlands in the United Kingdom. Genealogy Resources for the Surname TURNER 100 Most Common U.S. Surnames Their MeaningsSmith, Johnson, Williams, Jones, Brown... Are you one of the millions of Americans sporting one of these top 100 common last names from the 2000 census? 100 Most Common English Surnames with MeaningsLearn how surnames originated in England, and about the four major types of surnames. Includes a list of 100 of the most popular English surnames along with their meanings. Turner Family Crest - Its Not What You ThinkContrary to what you may hear, there is no such thing as a Turner family crest or coat of arms for the Turner surname.  Coats of arms are granted to individuals, not families, and may rightfully be used only by the uninterrupted male-line descendants of the person to whom the coat of arms was originally granted.   Turner Family Genealogy ForumSearch this popular genealogy forum for the Turner surname to find others who might be researching your ancestors, or post your own Turner query. FamilySearch - TURNER GenealogyAccess over 7 million free historical records and lineage-linked family trees posted for the Turner surname and its variations on this free genealogy website hosted by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. TURNER Surname Family Mailing ListsRootsWeb hosts several free mailing lists for researchers of the Turner surname. DistantCousin.com - TURNER Genealogy Family HistoryExplore free databases and genealogy links for the last name Turner. The Turner Genealogy and Family Tree PageBrowse family trees and links to genealogical and historical records for individuals with the last name Turner from the website of Genealogy Today. References: Surname Meanings Origins Cottle, Basil.  Penguin Dictionary of Surnames. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1967.Dorward, David.  Scottish Surnames. Collins Celtic (Pocket edition), 1998.Fucilla, Joseph.  Our Italian Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 2003.Hanks, Patrick and Flavia Hodges.  A Dictionary of Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1989.Hanks, Patrick.  Dictionary of American Family Names. Oxford University Press, 2003.Reaney, P.H.  A Dictionary of English Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1997.Smith, Elsdon C.  American Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 1997.

Game theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Game theory - Essay Example Game theory is used to understand competitive situations. These are normally those scenarios in which the chances of a certain outcome largely depend on parties involved and also on a bit of chance. Consequently, the theory focuses on predicting what these respective players will do and hence the most appropriate alternative is chosen by the analyst. There is a particular mathematician who was responsible for this theory and was known as John Von Neumann. (Miller, 2003) Through his work in the mid twentieth century, the expert was able to spearhead several divisions in this interesting theory. Some of the divisions include In the 2-person versus n-person division, the 2-Person approach largely focuses on the choices available to two players and how to bring out optimum outcomes. On the other hand, in the n - person division, great attention is given to the occurrences and coalitions that are likely to come out of prevailing circumstances. Then again the cooperative division of the game theory largely dwells on choices that are available to parties who have been bound by certain agreements. In uncooperative game theory, parties may find themselves obliged to one another because of the negative outcomes that may emanate out of their choices. Lastly, in the Zero sum scenario, players are likely to loose everything when the other party gains something. On the other hand, in the non zero sum, a player can gain something and still room for his or her opponent to gain it too. Despite all these branches, there are certain common characteristics that make the game theory what it is today. These can be summarized under the following three criterions Extensive or game tree form Normal or strategic matrix Characteristic function All forms of the game theory usually indicate the sequences or patterns of choices available to players and their chances of occurrences. The latter part largely depends upon a device and is usually backed up by some pay offs that are likely to occur after the end of a pattern of choices. The second aspect that makes the game theory what it is the normal, strategic or pay-off matrix. In this kind of approach, one is supposed to look though a series of avenues available to other players in the competition or event. Intersections of these avenues reflect the payoffs granted to a particular player doing the analysis. Additionally, the characteristic function is that possible coalitions that a particular player can ensure for another player regardless of what others end up doing in the process. (Osborne, 2004) Criticisms of the game theory in understanding economic factors or strategic behaviour of firms The most important thing to note in the game theory is the fact that players involved within a certain scenario are rational. It is also assumed that these players have well defined gaols that have been ranked from most important to least important. Besides these, the game theory is founded upon the fact that all decisions that are being made by certain individuals can be attached to a particular value and that players always tend

Conduct a Literature Review Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Conduct a Literature Review - Coursework Example Once each school is adequately funded, they might not find it challenging to support all their curricular and co-curricular activities much easily. However, many schools are not able to effectively discharge their roles mainly because of poor management of the available resources. Many schools have been, in the past, found to have misused their resources. Unknown to them, failure to be accountable for the school funds has had detrimental effects on the teaching and learning processes in these schools. Surprisingly, it is the school administrators who have been accused of engaging in such immoral and illegal acts. Instead of complying with their school budgets, they do choose to ignore and instead divert school funds to their personal uses. The sensitivity of this matter has attracted lots of scholars to conduct several researches aimed at unveiling these acts and helping to come up with measures that can be used to ultimately resolve it. Despite these attempts, a lot still need to be done to bridge the existing gap. In my research, I will have to carry out an extensive review on a lot of secondary resources that might be releva nt to my studies. To emphasize on the important contribution of management skills in public schools, Schultz & Shultz (2010) and Martindale (2011) state that self-discipline is paramount. In their opinion, a leader should always be ready to restraint themselves and refrain from any activity that might hinder the progress of their organizations. This view is supported by Gomez-Mejia (2008) who acknowledges that management is not a simple task because it does not only involve human, but also non-human resources. The findings of these scholars can be of much value if applied in this research. Management skills are necessary for the success of any public school in the country. Despite training as teachers, school heads should be equipped with managerial skills. These can be of